It’s all connected
The study of consciousness and reality has been approached from a multitude of perspectives, integrating insights from epistemology, ontology, quantum mechanics, cognitive science, and more.
Epistemologically, many theories question the limits of what can be known about consciousness, particularly when grappling with the hard problem of consciousness—the challenge of explaining how subjective experience arises from physical processes. Ontologically, consciousness is often debated as either fundamental to existence or as emerging from complex physical interactions, raising questions about whether it constitutes a primary ontological category or a derivative phenomenon.
At the heart of these discussions is the question of whether consciousness operates as a formal science. Some researchers aim to develop a formal science of consciousness, grounded in measurable, empirical data, while others argue that consciousness eludes such strict formalism due to its subjective and qualitative nature. This divide reflects a deeper epistemological and ontological tension: is consciousness something that can be reduced to formal, scientific principles, or does it require a new framework that transcends existing scientific paradigms?
The following analysis examines core themes across various theories of mind, focusing on several foundational concepts, from the notion of an “observer”, to “wavefunction” and the notion of reality as an “illusion”.
One key focus is the examination of consciousness as a fundamental aspect of existence, that contrasts with emergent views, where consciousness arises from complex systems but is not foundational. Also taken into consideration, is how these frameworks fit into the broader goal of constructing a formalism for consciousness, one that incorporates both empirical data and philosophical rigor. While some theories adhere closely to a scientific formalism, others challenge the very possibility of reducing consciousness to formal laws, suggesting instead that a new epistemological and ontological approach is required—one that recognizes the limitations of our current methodologies and the distinction between measurable phenomena and subjective experience.
Offering an overview of various theories of consciousness and reality, the below chart highlights both well-established frameworks and those that align with the view of consciousness as fundamental or are influenced by forms of idealism.
| Theory | Observer | Reality as Illusion | Consciousness | Wavefunction | Superposition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Polynon | Central to mapping cognitive dimensions; observer's measurement collapses noumenal potential | Holograms as cognitive dimensions, integrating phenomena and noumena, reality is a projection | The foundational essence generating and perceiving reality. | Collapses noumenal probabilities into phenomena | Superposition resolves into phenomena via observation |
| Copenhagen Interpretation | Crucial in collapsing the wavefunction | Not explicitly integrated, reality solidifies upon observation | Not fundamental, secondary to measurement | Represents knowledge, collapses upon measurement | Exists until measurement collapses it |
| Many Worlds (Everett) | Observer's experience splits into different worlds | Implied through branching of realities, multiple realities coexisting | Implied indirectly through branching | Never collapses; all outcomes realized in parallel worlds | Realized in branching of multiple outcomes |
| Pilot Wave (Bohmian Mechanics) | Reveals deterministic paths guided by the wavefunction | Not explicitly integrated, deterministic reality | Not fundamental, emergent from deterministic paths | Guides particles, no collapse | Implied in deterministic trajectories |
| Objective Reduction | Experiences the result of physical collapse | Not explicitly integrated, objective physical reality | Implied as part of objective physical processes | Collapses independently of observation | Collapses to physical states |
| Transactional Interpretation | Participates in the transaction, collapsing the wavefunction | Implicit in the bidirectional wave interaction, reality formed by transactions | Not fundamental, part of wave interaction | Standing wave from advanced and retarded waves | Established through transaction waves |
| QBism | Central to the interpretation of quantum events | Not explicitly integrated, reality as a personal construct | Subjective, tied to personal beliefs | Represents personal belief about probabilities | Is a reflection of subjective knowledge |
| Many Minds | Leads to subjective collapse | Not explicitly integrated, subjective realities | Subjective consciousnesses | Each observer has their own wavefunction | Manifests in subjective perceptions |
| Stochastic Mechanics | Observes outcomes of these processes | Not explicitly integrated, reality influenced by randomness | Not fundamental, secondary to randomness | Subject to random processes | Includes probabilistic outcomes |
| Ensemble Interpretation | Perceives one of the possible outcomes | Not explicitly integrated, reality as an ensemble outcome | Not fundamental, applies to systems | Describes an ensemble of systems | Understood through ensemble averages |
| Dualism (Descartes) | Separate from the physical, influencing perception | Not addressed, dual reality | Mind and body are distinct substances | Not addressed | Not directly addressed |
| Behaviorism (Skinner, Watson) | Defined by observable behaviors | Not addressed, reality is behavior | Not fundamental, behavior is primary | Not addressed | Irrelevant to behavior |
| Functionalism (Putnam, Fodor) | Defined by functional roles and mental states | Not addressed, reality is function | Defined by functional roles | Not addressed | Relates to functional roles |
| Identity Theory (Smart, Place) | Identical to brain states | Not addressed, reality is brain state | Not fundamental, emergent from brain states | Not addressed | Linked to brain state configurations |
| Emergentism (Sperry) | Emergent from complex brain states | Not addressed, emergent reality | Emergent, not fundamental | Not addressed | Emergent complexity |
| Eliminative Materialism (Churchland) | Common-sense mental states don't exist | Not addressed, reality is neural process | Not fundamental, common-sense mental states are illusory | Not addressed | Dismissed in favor of neural processes |
| Cognitive Science (Various) | Functions like a computer | Not addressed, reality is computation | Computational processes | Not addressed | Modeled as computational states |
| Epiphenomenalism (Huxley) | Mental events are by-products | Not addressed, reality is physical events | Not fundamental, by-products of physical events | Not addressed | Not relevant to physical events |
| Panpsychism (Whitehead, Chalmers) | Consciousness is ubiquitous | Not addressed, reality is infused with consciousness | Fundamental and ubiquitous | Not addressed | Reflects universal consciousness |
| IIT (Tononi) | Defined by the capacity to integrate information | Not addressed, reality is information | Fundamental, defined by information integration | Not addressed | Correlates with information integration |
| Geometric Unity (Weinstein) | Integral part of the unified geometric framework | Implies a deeper, unified structure, reality as a geometric construct | Implied as part of the unified geometric framework | Not explicitly addressed | A geometric relationship |
| Geometric Psychology (Betts) | Mind functions geometrically | Not addressed, reality as geometric forms | Implied through geometric functioning | Not addressed | Understood through geometric patterns |
| Hoffman Interface Theory | Perceptions as user interface | Perceived reality as an interface hiding true complexity | Fundamental, perceptions mask deeper reality | Not addressed | Hidden behind user interface |
| CTMU (Langan) | Central to self-configuration and reality modeling | Implied through metaphysical recursion, reality is self-configuration | Fundamental, self-configuring universal structure | Not explicitly addressed | Part of self-configuration |
| Participatory Universe (Wheeler) | Essential for defining reality | Reality emerges through observation, reality is participatory | Implied through participatory role | Collapses upon observation, participating in creation | Exists until participation occurs |
| Nested Observer Window (Riddle) | Each observer's window defines their cognitive horizon | Not addressed, nested realities | Implied through nested observer perspectives | Not explicitly addressed | Varies with observer windows |
| Global Workspace Theory | Observer’s awareness is the content broadcasted in the global workspace | Not explicitly integrated, reality emerges from conscious broadcast | Not fundamental, emergent from global broadcasting of information | Not addressed | Arises from broadcasting options |
| Attention Schema Theory | Observer constructs an internal model of attention, which guides consciousness | Not explicitly integrated, reality shaped by the attention schema | Not fundamental, consciousness guided by attention schema | Not addressed | Influenced by attention dynamics |
| Active Inference | Observer actively infers and updates beliefs to minimize prediction error | Not explicitly integrated, reality as a continuously updated model | Not fundamental, emergent from minimizing prediction error | Not addressed | Reflected in belief updating |
| Assembly Theory (Lee Cronin) | Observer sees the complexity of assembled structures as a measure of information | Implied through the complexity of structures, reality as an assembly of information | Not fundamental, complexity of assembled structures provides information | Not explicitly addressed | Indicates complexity of assembly |
| Quantum Brain Theory (Anirban Bandyopadhyay) | Observer's consciousness arises from quantum processes within microtubules | Implied through quantum processes forming a coherent whole | Fundamental, consciousness arises from quantum processes in the brain | Describes quantum processes in the brain | Related to brain's quantum states |
| Analytic Idealism (Bernardo Kastrup) | Observer’s consciousness is the primary reality from which physical reality emerges | Implied through the idea that physical reality is a projection of consciousness | Fundamental, consciousness is the primary and underlying essence of reality | Reality is a projection of mental states, not separate physical entities | A feature of conscious experience |
The elements
In most theories of mind, the Observer plays a key role in shaping reality. In the Polynon, it is central to collapsing noumenal potential into phenomena, where it is uniquely viewed as a holographic projection within the noumenal lens, a cognitive mechanism enabling self-reflection. This projection organizes consciousness across perceptual and cognitive dimensions, examining and configuring reality as a geometric and semiotic interplay of noumena, phantasiai, and phenomena.
This perspective resonates with quantum mechanics, such as the Copenhagen Interpretation, where the observer collapses the wavefunction to actualize potential realities. Unlike Many Worlds theories, which suggest observation splits realities into parallel outcomes, the Polynon proposes a dynamic cognitive geometry aligning observation with self-awareness and broader dimensions of reality. Modern cognitive theories like Global Workspace and Attention Schema Theory emphasize the observer’s role in shaping conscious experience, while older approaches, like Behaviorism and Functionalism, reduce the Observer to a reactive system responding to stimuli.
The wavefunction, in quantum mechanics, describes the probabilistic nature of particles before they are observed. In the Polynon, the wavefunction serves as a layer of a perceptual lens that bridges cognitive and physical realities. It suggests that our cognitive processes, shaped by the observer’s interactions, filter and collapse the wavefunction into concrete experiences. This idea of using the wavefunction as a means to collapse noumenal potential into observable reality echoes theories like Bohmian Mechanics (Pilot Wave Theory), which posits that the wavefunction guides particles in deterministic paths, and the Copenhagen Interpretation, where it collapses upon measurement.
In contrast, Many Worlds avoids the collapse of the wavefunction entirely, allowing all outcomes to exist in parallel worlds, and Objective Reduction theories suggest that the wavefunction collapses independently of the observer. Other interpretations like Transactional Interpretation view the wavefunction as part of a standing wave interaction, while QBism treats it as a representation of personal beliefs about probabilities, emphasizing the subjective nature of quantum states.
Superposition is central to many quantum theories of consciousness, reflecting the idea that multiple potential realities exist simultaneously until observation collapses them into a single outcome. The Polynon extends this concept to cognition, suggesting that each cognitive state is a superposition of potential perceptions that only become concrete once observed. It introduces the Observer as being in superposition, aligning with Roger Penrose’s ideas but offering a clear mechanism. The Observer is viewed as a holographic projection within the noumenal lens, spanning multiple cognitive and perceptual potentials. When the Observer reflects upon itself, this self-measurement collapses the superposition, determining the observed reality.
This contrasts with interpretations like the Copenhagen Interpretation, where superposition collapses upon measurement, and the Many Worlds Interpretation, where superposition never fully collapses, branching into parallel realities. Pilot Wave Theory introduces superposition through deterministic trajectories, avoiding collapse by guiding outcomes along specific paths. QBism offers a subjective take, interpreting superposition as reflecting the observer’s knowledge and beliefs, with outcomes influenced by interaction.
The Polynon treats reality as a projection—a holographic construct where both the phenomenal and noumenal dimensions are integrated. This aligns with the idea that our experience of reality is shaped by cognitive structures, making reality itself an illusion created through the interaction of cognitive dimensions. The concept echoes Plato’s cave allegory and is similar to Donald Hoffman’s Interface Theory, where perception is seen as an interface hiding the true complexity of reality. In quantum mechanics, reality solidifies only upon observation, as seen in the Copenhagen Interpretation, while in the Many Worlds theory, multiple realities coexist, with each branching off based on the observer’s experience.
Other interpretations, such as Transactional Interpretation and Pilot Wave Theory, do not frame reality as illusory, but rather as a result of deterministic or bidirectional interactions. The idea that reality is shaped by something more fundamental, often beyond the reach of direct observation, is central to many idealist and constructivist theories.
Consciousness is the only fact that we can study directly, since all other objects of knowledge must be perceived through consciousness.
B.W. Betts
Seeing it all.
A graph will expand the research on these and other concepts, exploring additional theories and topics such as the nature of time, perception, the interplay between mind and body, and how each theory positions consciousness in relation to physical phenomena. This structured comparison not only deepens our understanding of these complex topics but also provides a clearer picture of how the Polynon reflects on and diverges from established theories.
Beyond the theoretical exploration, the evolving science of consciousness benefits from the work of those attempting to provide a clearer, more organized understanding of this complex field. Researchers and thinkers are not only probing the mysteries of consciousness but also crafting frameworks to map out the terrain. Notable among them is Robert Lawrence Kuhn and his “Landscape of Consciousness,” which, amongst others, serves as foundation for this graph. Kuhn’s work in creating ontologies and taxonomies of consciousness helps structure the diverse theories into an organized whole, offering a panoramic view of how consciousness research connects across multiple dimensions.
Mentioning here similar avenues for exploration, the The Science of Consciousness map by Moritz Kriegleder & Maximilian Noichl, which analyzes over 60,000 papers spanning the main strands of theory as defined in recent reviews. Utilizing state-of-the-art language models to assess similarities in the abstracts, this work visualizes the current strands of research and reveals clusters that, despite claims of interdisciplinary exchange, remain insufficiently integrated into the broader science of consciousness. A similar effort is being done by Curt Jaimungal, in his Theory of Everything AI, which leverages AI to facilitate deep research across frontier and interdisciplinary domains. This initiative includes features such as a comprehensive search algorithm, coverage of all Theories of Everything episodes, in-text citations linking directly to specific timestamps, interactive knowledge graph visualizations, and auto-generated wiki articles for easy exploration.
The following journey through diverse theories will offer insights into how the mind interacts with reality, how observation shapes existence, and how consciousness weaves itself into the very fabric of what we perceive as real. By integrating these research efforts, we can appreciate not only the depth of the philosophical debates but also the methodological clarity brought by a diversity of scholars and philosophers, who aim to untangle the complexities of consciousness into a structured, comprehensible landscape.
To accommodate the breadth and diversity of resources, the graph prioritizes high-level content, enabling the inclusion of a larger number of theories, research findings, and frameworks. This approach ensures a comprehensive overview without sacrificing depth, providing a versatile platform that bridges multiple domains and perspectives while maintaining coherence and clarity.
The State of Consciousness Science: A Statistical Overview
Quantum mechanics plays a significant role in consciousness studies, with theories like Quantum Brain Theory and Many Worlds Interpretation leveraging quantum principles to explain mind and reality. Cognitive science contributes heavily, with frameworks such as Attention Schema Theory and Global Workspace Theory emphasizing cognitive processes in shaping conscious experience. These often intersect with neuroscience, which explores the brain’s role in the emergence and functioning of consciousness.
Classical philosophy remains influential, with enduring theories like Dualism and Identity Theory shaping modern debates. Teleology, addressing purpose in consciousness, is less prominent, while interconnectedness theories such as Conscious Realism and Relational Quantum Mechanics explore the relational dynamics of conscious entities. Quantitative approaches focus on measurable aspects, while qualitative theories address the subjective nature of consciousness, reflecting diverse methodologies.
Themes like emergence, reductionism vs. holism, and causality pervade discussions, as seen in theories like Emergentism and Functionalism. Other theories highlight self-organization, embodied cognition, and mindfulness, examining how conscious systems structure themselves and integrate body and attention. Skepticism about the limits of understanding consciousness also appears, suggesting that some perspectives embrace inherent uncertainties about the nature of mind and reality.
Using geometry and geometric cognition
Geometry was employed by the ancient Greeks, as a philosophical language, a means of assessing the truthfulness of statements and the coherence of thought. Plato’s notion of ideal forms and Euclid’s axiomatic method demonstrated how geometric reasoning could serve as a foundation for logic, offering a structure where statements could be evaluated for internal consistency and alignment with universal principles. This connection between geometry, logic, and grammar is reflected in how cognitive structures are embodied; the mind itself appears to operate geometrically, organizing perceptions and thoughts within spatial and relational frameworks that mirror the logical rigor of geometric constructions.
The importance of geometry extends beyond its role as a philosophical method; it has long been regarded as a universal language, transcending cultural and temporal boundaries. When studied properly, geometry becomes a tool for contemplation, capable of guiding the intellect toward profound insights about the nature of existence.
In the study of consciousness and the mind, various theories have drawn upon geometric principles, though often in limited or peripheral ways. Integrated Information Theory (IIT), for instance, uses conceptual shapes, such as “qualia space,” to represent the complexity and interconnectedness of conscious states. These shapes aim to quantify and describe the structure of experience but stop short of positioning geometry as a fundamental driver of cognition or reality. Similarly, Quantum Brain Theory, in its attempt to link quantum phenomena to cognition, implicitly invokes geometric principles through the use of Hilbert spaces and probability amplitudes, providing a mathematical framework for understanding states and interactions. Even Jungian archetypes, while not explicitly geometric, can be interpreted as relational patterns existing within a conceptual or psychological “space,” hinting at a deeper geometric organization underlying the psyche.
Historically, Geometric Psychology, developed by B.W. Betts in the 19th century, stands as one of the earliest explicit applications of geometry to the study of mind. Betts proposed that mental processes could be mapped to geometric forms, with shapes representing various cognitive states and transformations. His work, while speculative, laid the groundwork for considering geometry as more than a descriptive tool, instead pointing toward its potential as a fundamental organizing principle.
More recently, Eric Weinstein’s Geometric Unity presents an ambitious attempt to unify physical laws through advanced geometric frameworks. While primarily aimed at theoretical physics, Weinstein’s concept of the “Observerse” introduces a novel perspective on consciousness and observation. The Observerse suggests that the observer’s role is embedded within the geometry of the universe itself, tying the act of observation to the very structure of spacetime. This approach resonates with the idea of consciousness being a central, geometric phenomenon, rather than an emergent or ancillary property.
Despite these varied efforts, a common limitation remains: geometry is frequently employed as a descriptive or representational tool rather than a foundational principle.
The Polynon, by contrast, integrates geometry at every level, both as a means of representation, as well as the very substrate of cognition and reality as a pre-geometric structure. This highly geometric framework goes beyond the use of shapes and relationships to describe states of mind—it constructs a cognitive geometry that operationalizes the dynamics of consciousness itself. Unlike other theories that borrow geometry for visualization or modeling, the Polynon makes it foundational, aligning with the philosophical tradition that sees geometry as both method and essence, the universal grammar of existence.
Building on a blind spot
While many theories offer valuable insights into the nature of consciousness and reality, notable blind spots remain the treatment of the wavefunction and noumena—concepts that are essential in understanding deeper aspects of existence. Across multiple theories, the wavefunction remains unaddressed, with the exploration of noumena, the “things-in-themselves” beyond perception, being hardly adressed. This gap is significant, especially as modern discussions often hinge on empirical data and physical processes, leaving untouched the abstract, yet crucial, dimensions of reality.
Most modern theories of mind, especially those grounded in materialism, tend to sideline the concept of noumena, prioritizing phenomena—what is empirically observable and measurable. This tendency is deeply rooted in the empirical framework that guides most scientific inquiries. Since noumena, by definition, lie beyond the scope of sensory experience and measurement, they are often relegated to the background or omitted entirely from discussions on cognition and consciousness. This exclusion is not so much a denial of their existence but rather a reflection of the limitations inherent in scientific methodologies that rely heavily on observable data.
For instance, theories like functionalism, behaviourism, or even more recent cognitive and neuroscience models emphasize observable brain states and behaviours without addressing the “thing-in-itself” that may underlie these phenomena. Even consciousness is frequently framed in terms of neural correlates and functional systems, effectively limiting our understanding to the phenomenal realm—how things appear to us, not how they exist independently.
By contrast, Bernardo Kastrup has been a vocal advocate for integrating noumena into discussions about consciousness – proposing IIT as the closest theory of the noumenal. In his Analytic Idealism, he argues that consciousness is not just fundamental but the very fabric from which reality is projected. For Kastrup, the noumenal realm underpins all perceptual experiences, aligning with the Polynon’s framework, which posits that consciousness is the lens through which the noumenal potential collapses into perceived reality.
In addition to the gaps in addressing the wavefunction and noumena, another critical blind spot in many theories is the treatment of superposition. Roger Penrose, through his work on quantum mechanics and Gödel’s incompleteness theorem, notably in his “expanding cube” thought experiment, argues that the phenomenon of superposition—where states can exist simultaneously until observed—extends far beyond physics, hinting at deeper connections between mind and reality. Christof Koch has also recently explored superposition, linking it to consciousness through quantum events, further emphasizing its relevance in modern discussions of mind and cognition.
The Polynon framework builds on and beyond such ideas by integrating superposition, holography and many other “hard topics” or blind spots into its geometric model, where consciousness operates across multiple cognitive dimensions until collapsed into a singular experience for the observer. This further pushes the boundaries of how we understand reality, not merely as fixed or empirical, but as a dynamic interplay of potentialities defined through observation.
Note
The content of the graph is continuously refined to reflect the evolving landscape of theories of mind and consciousness. As a work in progress, the graph will be updated to include new or previously overlooked authors, as well as additional layers of philosophy, philosophy of science, religion, and other relevant perspectives.
Should you notice any inaccuracies or areas for improvement, your insights are greatly valued. Please feel free to share your observations, and we will gladly review and update the content as necessary.
Last update: 21 Jan 2025
Cite this work
Roibu, T. (2024) The State of Consciousness Science: A statistical overview. Polynon.